Robert of Geneva, son of the Count of Geneva, became a cardinal in 1371. As papal legate of Gregory XI he was to put down the revolt in the Papal States from 1376 to 1378. In February 1377 he had the inhabitants of Cesena cut down by John Hawkwood's mercenaries; according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, 4,000 people are said to have died, and he was afterwards called "the executioner of Cesena". In 1378 the French cardinals elected him pope in opposition to Urban VI. As antipope Clement VII he resided at Avignon, resorted according to the Catholic Encyclopedia to simony and extortion, and donated the larger part of the Papal States to Louis II of Anjou.
Deaths
4,000(estimated, inhabitants of Cesena, February 1377 (Catholic Encyclopedia: "is said to have" authorised))Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912)
As papal legate in Upper Italy he was to put down the revolt in the Papal States. According to Lea, he threatened the citizens of Bologna that he would wash his hands and feet in their blood. When Cesena rose against his Breton mercenaries in February 1377, he summoned John Hawkwood with the instructions "Blood, blood, and justice"; the mercenaries carried out a general massacre and looted the town. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he is said to have authorised the massacre of 4,000 persons. See the entry Cesena 1377.
Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„As papal legate in Upper Italy (1376-78), in order to put down a rebellion in the Pontifical States, he is said to have authorized the massacre of 4000 persons at Cesena“
Robert of Geneva, Artikel Robert of Geneva.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: Harper & Brothers; Project Gutenberg (eBook 39451), Bd. 1, S. 559
„his threat to the citizens of Bologna that he would wash his hands and feet in their blood“
Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1 (New York 1887/88), Bd. 1, S. 559.
OriginalEvidence: Dictionary of National Biography, Bd. 25 (London 1891), Artikel Hawkwood, John de
„The cardinal's instructions were ‘Blood, blood, and justice.’“
Hawkwood, John de, Artikel Hawkwood, John de.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: Dictionary of National Biography, Bd. 25 (London 1891), Artikel Hawkwood, John de
„indulged in a general massacre, and looted the town“
Hawkwood, John de, Artikel Hawkwood, John de.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899, Bd. 1, S. 112
„tragical massacre perpetrated at Cesena (February, 1377)“
Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, Bd. 1, S. 112.
Original
Background
Course of events
Robert of Geneva was born at Geneva in 1342, the son of Count Amadeus III, and died at Avignon on 16 September 1394. He became Bishop of Thérouanne in 1361, Archbishop of Cambrai in 1368 and cardinal on 30 May 1371.
Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„b. at Geneva, 1342; d. at Avignon, 16 Sept., 1394. He was the son of Count Amadeus III.“
Robert of Geneva, Artikel Robert of Geneva.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„he became Bishop of Thérouanne in 1361, Archbishop of Cambrai in 1368, and cardinal 30 May, 1371“
At Avignon, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he resorted to simony and extortion to meet the financial needs of his court. He granted the greater part of the Papal States to Duke Louis of Anjou as a new kingdom of Adria, on condition that he expel Urban VI. Pastor writes that such an action was only possible to the "executioner of Cesena".
Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„donated the larger part of the Pontifical States to Louis II of Anjou, resorted to simony and extortion to meet the financial needs of his court“
Robert of Geneva, Artikel Robert of Geneva.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899, Bd. 1, S. 133
„to form the new kingdom of Adria, on condition that he should expel Urban VI.“
Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, Bd. 1, S. 133.
OriginalEvidence: hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899, Bd. 1, S. 133
„Such an action was only possible to the " executioner of Cesena,"“
Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, Bd. 1, S. 133.
Original
Response of the Church
On 20 September 1378 the French cardinals at Fondi elected him pope in opposition to Urban VI. As Clement VII he was the first antipope of the Great Schism; France, Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Portugal, Savoy and others acknowledged him. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he seems never to have sincerely desired the end of the Schism.
Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„Elected to the papacy at Fondi, 20 Sept. 1378, by the French cardinals in opposition to Urban VI, he was the first antipope of the Great Schism.“
Robert of Geneva, Artikel Robert of Geneva.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„France, Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Portugal, Savoy, and some minor German states, Denmark, and Norway acknowledged his authority.“
Robert of Geneva, Artikel Robert of Geneva.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„seems never to have sincerely desired the termination of the Schism“
Reference work
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912): Robert of Geneva, 1 January 1912.
Original · Archive copy(retrieved 30 Oct 2026)
Reference work
Dictionary of National Biography, Bd. 25 (London 1891): Hawkwood, John de, 1 January 1891.
Original · Archive copy(retrieved 30 Oct 2026)
Scholarly literature
Harper & Brothers; Project Gutenberg (eBook 39451): Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1 (New York 1887/88).
Original(retrieved 11 Oct 2026)
Scholarly literature
hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899: Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, 1 January 1899.
Original(retrieved 30 Oct 2026)
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