Cesena 1377: Cardinal legate Robert of Geneva had the inhabitants of the town cut down by mercenaries
In 1375 almost the whole of the Papal States rose against the rule of Pope Gregory XI's French legates. Cardinal Robert of Geneva was to put down the rebellion as papal legate. When the citizens of Cesena rose against his Breton mercenaries, he summoned the English mercenary captain John Hawkwood; according to the Dictionary of National Biography his instructions were "Blood, blood, and justice." On the night of 3 February 1377 the mercenaries entered the town, carried out a general massacre and looted it. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, 4,000 people are said to have been killed. Robert was afterwards called "the executioner of Cesena"; the following year French cardinals elected him pope (Clement VII).
Deaths
4,000(estimated, inhabitants of Cesena, February 1377 (Catholic Encyclopedia: "is said to have" authorised))Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912)
Robert of Geneva (cardinal and papal legate, ordered the massacre, from 1378 antipope Clement VII) John Hawkwood (English mercenary captain in papal service, carried out the massacre) Gregory XI (pope 1370 to 1378, employer of the legate and of Hawkwood)
What happened to the people
Who was affected? Victims and numbers
The mercenaries carried out a general massacre of the inhabitants. The Catholic Encyclopedia writes that Robert is said to have authorised the massacre of 4,000 persons and gives the figure without further detail. The Britannica and the Dictionary of National Biography speak of the massacre of the inhabitants without a figure. According to Pastor, the Archbishop of Prague, Johann von Jenstein, wrote that the cardinal had cruelly killed all the inhabitants and residents of this city in his ferocity.
Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„he is said to have authorized the massacre of 4000 persons at Cesena“
Robert of Geneva, Artikel Robert of Geneva.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage (1911), Artikel Hawkwood, Sir John
„In 1377, under the orders of the cardinal Robert of Geneva, legate of Bologna, he massacred the inhabitants of Cesena“
Hawkwood, Sir John, Artikel Hawkwood, Sir John.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899, Bd. 1, S. 112, Anm.
„The Archbishop of Prague, Johann von Jenzenstein“
Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, Bd. 1, S. 112, Anm..
OriginalEvidence: hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899, Bd. 1, S. 112, Anm.
„universes civitatis hujus habitatores et incolas feritate sua crudeliter interemit“
Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, Bd. 1, S. 112, Anm..
Original
What happened to those affected?
According to Pastor, the massacre was described and severely blamed by all contemporary historians; Archbishop Jenstein spoke of an atrocious crime. It fearfully intensified the hostility to the pope: Florence spread the horrors among the Romans, kings and princes, and according to the Chronicle of Bologna the people would believe neither in the pope nor in the cardinals, because such things had nothing in common with the faith. Hawkwood himself was so disgusted with the butcher's work that in May 1377 he went over to the anti-papal league.
Evidence: hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899, Bd. 1, S. 112, Anm.
„The bloodshed at Cesena was more or less correctly described and severely blamed by all contemporary historians.“
Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, Bd. 1, S. 112, Anm..
OriginalEvidence: hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899, Bd. 1, S. 112, Anm.
„expatiates in the strongest terms on the " atrocious crime " which the Cardinal of Geneva had perpetrated at Cesena“
Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, Bd. 1, S. 112, Anm..
OriginalEvidence: hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899, Bd. 1, S. 112
„tragical massacre perpetrated at Cesena (February, 1377)“
Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, Bd. 1, S. 112.
OriginalEvidence: hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899, Bd. 1, S. 112
„This deed of blood was welcome to the Florentines“
Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, Bd. 1, S. 112.
OriginalEvidence: hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899, Bd. 1, S. 113
„the people would believe neither in the Pope nor in the Cardinals, because such things had nothing in common with the Faith.“
Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, Bd. 1, S. 113.
OriginalEvidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 6 (1909), Artikel Pope Gregory XI
„The notorious massacre of Cesena, which was ordered by Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards antipope Clement VII), embittered the Italians still more against the pope.“
Pope Gregory XI, Artikel Pope Gregory XI.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: Dictionary of National Biography, Bd. 25 (London 1891), Artikel Hawkwood, John de
„Disgusted with this butcher's work“
Hawkwood, John de, Artikel Hawkwood, John de.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage (1911), Artikel Hawkwood, Sir John
„but in May of the same year, disliking the executioner’s work put upon him by the legate, he joined the anti-papal league“
Early in February 1377 the people of Cesena rose against the Breton garrison that Robert of Geneva had placed there. Robert summoned the English mercenary captain John Hawkwood, whose White Company was in papal service; according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Gregory XI had bought Hawkwood into his service. According to the Dictionary of National Biography, the cardinal's instructions were "Blood, blood, and justice." Hawkwood at first demurred but then led his men into the town on the night of 3 February.
Evidence: Dictionary of National Biography, Bd. 25 (London 1891), Artikel Hawkwood, John de
„Early in February 1377 he was summoned to Cesena, where the populace had risen against a Breton garrison, placed there by Robert of Geneva, cardinal of the church of the Twelve Apostles, and legate of Romagna, afterwards the antipope Clement VII.“
Hawkwood, John de, Artikel Hawkwood, John de.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage (1911), Artikel Hawkwood, Sir John
„the White Company passed into the papal service“
Hawkwood, Sir John, Artikel Hawkwood, Sir John.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 6 (1909), Artikel Pope Gregory XI
„bought into his service the English condottiere John Hawkwood“
Pope Gregory XI, Artikel Pope Gregory XI.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: Dictionary of National Biography, Bd. 25 (London 1891), Artikel Hawkwood, John de
„The cardinal's instructions were ‘Blood, blood, and justice.’“
Hawkwood, John de, Artikel Hawkwood, John de.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: Dictionary of National Biography, Bd. 25 (London 1891), Artikel Hawkwood, John de
„Hawkwood at first demurred, but led his men into the town on the night of 3 Feb., indulged in a general massacre, and looted the town.“
Why? Justification and motives (according to the sources)
Like his predecessors at Avignon, Gregory XI appointed Frenchmen as legates and governors of the provinces of the Papal States, who according to the Catholic Encyclopedia did not understand the Italians and were hated by them. Florence and Bernabò Visconti stirred up the revolt until within a short time the entire Patrimony of St. Peter was up in arms against the pope. Gregory put Florence under interdict, excommunicated its inhabitants and outlawed them and their possessions.
Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 6 (1909), Artikel Pope Gregory XI
„Like the preceding popes of Avignon, Gregory XI made the fatal mistake of appointing Frenchmen, who did not understand the Italians and whom the Italians hated, as legates and governors of the ecclesiastical provinces in Italy.“
Pope Gregory XI, Artikel Pope Gregory XI.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 6 (1909), Artikel Pope Gregory XI
„They were so successful that within a short time the entire Patrimony of St. Peter was up in arms against the pope.“
Pope Gregory XI, Artikel Pope Gregory XI.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 6 (1909), Artikel Pope Gregory XI
„He put Florence under interdict, excommunicated its inhabitants, and outlawed them and their possessions.“
Cardinal Robert of Geneva, son of Count Amadeus III of Geneva, was papal legate in Upper Italy from 1376 to 1378 in order to put down the rebellion in the Papal States. According to Lea, he led a band of mercenaries to vindicate the pope's territorial claims and threatened the citizens of Bologna that he would wash his hands and feet in their blood.
Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„He was the son of Count Amadeus III.“
Robert of Geneva, Artikel Robert of Geneva.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„As papal legate in Upper Italy (1376-78), in order to put down a rebellion in the Pontifical States“
Robert of Geneva, Artikel Robert of Geneva.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: Harper & Brothers; Project Gutenberg (eBook 39451), Bd. 1, S. 559
„he led a band of Free Companions to vindicate the papal territorial claims“
Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1 (New York 1887/88), Bd. 1, S. 559.
OriginalEvidence: Harper & Brothers; Project Gutenberg (eBook 39451), Bd. 1, S. 559
„his threat to the citizens of Bologna that he would wash his hands and feet in their blood“
Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1 (New York 1887/88), Bd. 1, S. 559.
Original
Who received the assets, who profited?
After the massacre the mercenaries looted the town. The Britannica of 1911 writes that Cesena was sacked by Cardinal Robert of Geneva.
Evidence: Dictionary of National Biography, Bd. 25 (London 1891), Artikel Hawkwood, John de
„indulged in a general massacre, and looted the town“
Hawkwood, John de, Artikel Hawkwood, John de.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage (1911), Artikel Cesena
„In 1377 it was sacked by Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards Clement VII., antipope).“
Robert of Geneva was afterwards called "the executioner of Cesena". On 20 September 1378 the French cardinals at Fondi elected him pope in opposition to Urban VI; as Clement VII he was the first antipope of the Great Schism and resided at Avignon. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he resorted there to simony and extortion to meet the financial needs of his court and donated the larger part of the Papal States to Louis II of Anjou.
Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„was consequently called "the executioner of Cesena"“
Robert of Geneva, Artikel Robert of Geneva.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„Elected to the papacy at Fondi, 20 Sept. 1378, by the French cardinals in opposition to Urban VI, he was the first antipope of the Great Schism.“
Robert of Geneva, Artikel Robert of Geneva.
Original · Archive copyEvidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912), Artikel Robert of Geneva
„donated the larger part of the Pontifical States to Louis II of Anjou, resorted to simony and extortion to meet the financial needs of his court“
Reference work
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 13 (1912): Robert of Geneva, 1 January 1912.
Original · Archive copy(retrieved 30 Oct 2026)
Reference work
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 6 (1909): Pope Gregory XI, 1 January 1909.
Original · Archive copy(retrieved 30 Oct 2026)
Reference work
Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage (1911): Hawkwood, Sir John, 1 January 1911.
Original · Archive copy(retrieved 30 Oct 2026)
Reference work
Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage (1911): Cesena, 1 January 1911.
Original(retrieved 30 Oct 2026)
Reference work
Dictionary of National Biography, Bd. 25 (London 1891): Hawkwood, John de, 1 January 1891.
Original · Archive copy(retrieved 30 Oct 2026)
Scholarly literature
Harper & Brothers; Project Gutenberg (eBook 39451): Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1 (New York 1887/88).
Original(retrieved 11 Oct 2026)
Scholarly literature
hg. von Frederick Ignatius Antrobus, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, London 1899: Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Bd. 1, 1 January 1899.
Original(retrieved 30 Oct 2026)
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