Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia)

Through his uncle, Pope Callixtus III, Rodrigo Borgia became bishop, cardinal and vice-chancellor of the Church and one of the richest men of his time. He had four children with his mistress Vannozza. In 1492 he became pope; the Britannica (1911) considers it certain that he won the election through bribery, the Catholic Encyclopedia considers it not improbable but not provable. As pope he procured offices and lands for his children, sold spiritual and secular offices according to both sources and took in 120,000 ducats for the appointment of twelve cardinals. According to the Britannica, he had wealthy opponents accused, imprisoned and their property confiscated.

Life dates

1 Jan 1431-18 Aug 1503 (72 years old)

Country

Italy, Spain, Vatican City

Institutions

Holy See
Papal States

Category

Expropriation, Financial misconduct

Level of evidence

B two independent scholarly sources · what does this mean?

Persons involved

Vannozza Catanei (mistress, mother of his four children)
Cesare Borgia (son, cardinal at the age of 18)
Juan Borgia (son)
Giulia Farnese (mistress)
Alessandro Farnese (brother of Giulia Farnese, appointed cardinal by him)
Callixtus III (Pope, his uncle)
Virginio Orsini (died as a prisoner, his property was confiscated)

Background

Course of events

1. Rodrigo Borgia was born near Valencia on 1 January 1431 and died in Rome on 18 August 1503.
   Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 1 (1907), Artikel Pope Alexander VI, Beginn

   „Rodrigo Borgia, born at Xativa, near Valencia, in Spain, 1 January, 1431; died in Rome, 18 August, 1503.“

Why? Justification and motives (according to the sources)

1. According to the Britannica, his "unbridled passion" for endowing his relatives at the expense of the Church and his neighbours soon became manifest; for this he was ready to commit any crime and plunged all Italy into war. The Catholic Encyclopedia also writes that his action against the barons became more and more identified with schemes for the aggrandizement of his family; there was no place in his programme for a reform of abuses.
   Evidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage, Bd. 1 (1911), Wikisource, Artikel Alexander VI.

   „his unbridled passion for endowing his relatives at the expense of the church and of his neighbours became manifest. For this object he was ready to commit any crime and to plunge all Italy into war.“

   Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 1 (1907), Artikel Pope Alexander VI

   „this laudable purpose became more and more identified in his mind with schemes for the aggrandizement of his family . There was no place in his programme for a reform of abuses.“

Who received the assets, who profited?

1. After the election of his uncle Callixtus III he became successively bishop, cardinal and vice-chancellor of the Church; the Britannica calls this nepotism. He accumulated so many archbishoprics, bishoprics and abbeys that, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he became one of the richest men of his time.
   Evidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage, Bd. 1 (1911), Wikisource, Artikel Alexander VI.

   „he was created successively bishop, cardinal and vice-chancellor of the church, an act of nepotism characteristic of the age“

   Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 1 (1907), Artikel Pope Alexander VI

   „he became one of the wealthiest men of his time“

2. To obtain money for his campaigns, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he disposed of civil and spiritual privileges and offices "in a scandalous manner"; the Britannica speaks of the sale of offices as a veritable scandal.
   Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 1 (1907), Artikel Pope Alexander VI

   „in order to obtain money for his military operations he disposed of civil and spiritual privileges and offices in a scandalous manner“

   Evidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage, Bd. 1 (1911), Wikisource, Artikel Alexander VI.

   „the sale of offices became a veritable scandal“

3. In 1500 he appointed twelve new cardinals and received 120,000 ducats for it. In the same Holy Year, pilgrims brought money for indulgences to Rome, with which he financed the campaigns of his son Cesare.
   Evidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage, Bd. 1 (1911), Wikisource, Artikel Alexander VI.

   „The pope, ever in need of money, now created twelve new cardinals, from whom he received 120,000 ducats“

   Evidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage, Bd. 1 (1911), Wikisource, Artikel Alexander VI.

   „bringing money for the purchase of indulgences, so that Alexander was able to furnish Cesare with funds for his enterprise“

4. After Virginio Orsini had died as a prisoner in Naples, the pope confiscated his property; in 1497 the Orsini family had to pay 50,000 ducats for their confiscated lands.
   Evidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage, Bd. 1 (1911), Wikisource, Artikel Alexander VI.

   „Virginio Orsini, who had been captured by the Spaniards, died a prisoner at Naples, and the pope confiscated his property“

   Evidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage, Bd. 1 (1911), Wikisource, Artikel Alexander VI.

   „the Orsini paying 50,000 ducats in exchange for their confiscated lands“

Response of the Church

1. From around 1470 he had a relationship with the Roman woman Vannozza Catanei, the mother of his four children Juan, Cesare, Lucrezia and Jofre. Pope Pius II sharply rebuked him for misconduct in Siena; according to the Catholic Encyclopedia he continued to live this way even after his ordination as a priest in 1468.
   Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 1 (1907), Artikel Pope Alexander VI

   „Towards 1470 began his relations with the Roman lady, Vanozza Catanei, the mother of his four children“

   Evidence: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 1 (1907), Artikel Pope Alexander VI

   „Even after his ordination to the priesthood, in 1468, he continued his evil ways.“

2. Already in 1493 he had appointed twelve cardinals, among them his eighteen-year-old son Cesare and Alessandro Farnese, the brother of his mistress Giulia Farnese.
   Evidence: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage, Bd. 1 (1911), Wikisource, Artikel Alexander VI.

   „he created twelve new cardinals, among them his own son Cesare, then only eighteen years old, and Alessandro Farnese, the brother of Giulia Bella, one of the pope’s mistresses“

See also

• 1452-2023 · 571 years

  Papal bulls on conquest and enslavement and the "Doctrine of Discovery"

  • Bolivia
  • Portugal
  • Vatican City
  • Admission
  • Expropriation
  • Colonialism
  • Slavery
• Person 21 Sep 1452-23 May 1498 · 45 years old

  Girolamo Savonarola

  • Italy
  • Torture
  • Heresy trials
  • Murder

Scholarly literature and reference works

1. Reference work
   The Catholic Encyclopedia, Bd. 1 (1907): Pope Alexander VI, 1 January 1907. Original · Archive copy (retrieved 12 Oct 2026)
2. Reference work
   Encyclopædia Britannica, 11. Auflage, Bd. 1 (1911), Wikisource: Alexander (popes), Abschnitt Alexander VI., 1 January 1911. Original (retrieved 12 Oct 2026)

Last changed on 22 October 2026. Is something missing or wrong? Suggest an addition or correction.